| Summary: | In the modern world, climate change, pollution, urbanization, and pandemics are some of the most urgent issues and challenges faced, which have far-reaching consequences for water resources, ecosystems, and human societies. Climate change is altering precipitation patterns, resulting in more frequent and severe extreme weather events. Human activities and rapid unplanned urbanization has changed the landscape, increasing runoff to the streams from rainfall and increasing the frequency of flooding. Due to pollution, water quality is deteriorating, disrupting our ecosystems as well as posing health risks to mankind. Additionally, high occurrences of water shortages and changes in water use practices are also emerging, especially since the pandemic. This chapter discusses that these global concerns may impact hydrological systems and exacerbate the effects of extreme weather events, which have significant consequences for the environment and society. The chapter also provides an overview of current research in this field, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary approaches to address these complex and interrelated challenges. Finally, to mitigate the impacts of hydrological extremes with these multiple, interrelated stressors, the chapter advocates for a greater emphasis on adaptive management strategies. © 2025 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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